Eating pomegranates or drinking pomegranate juice may help prevent and slow the growth of some types of breast cancer. A new study shows a group of phytochemicals called ellagitannins found in abundance in pomegranates inhibited the growth of estrogen-responsive breast cancer in laboratory tests.

The abstract of the study says “Estrogen stimulates the proliferation of breast cancer cells and the growth of estrogen-responsive tumors. The aromatase enzyme, which converts androgen to estrogen, plays a key role in breast carcinogenesis. The pomegranate fruit, a rich source of ellagitannins (ET), has attracted recent attention due to its anticancer and antiatherosclerotic properties. On consumption, pomegranate ETs hydrolyze, releasing ellagic acid, which is then converted to 3,8-dihydroxy-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one (“urolithin”) derivatives by gut microflora. The purpose of this study was to investigate the antiaromatase activity and inhibition of testosterone-induced breast cancer cell proliferation by ET-derived compounds isolated from pomegranates. A panel of 10 ET-derived compounds including ellagic acid, gallagic acid, and urolithins A and B (and their acetylated, methylated, and sulfated analogues prepared in our laboratory) were examined for their ability to inhibit aromatase activity and testosterone-induced breast cancer cell proliferation. Using a microsomal aromatase assay, we screened the panel of ET-derived compounds and identified six with antiaromatase activity. Among these, urolithin B (UB) was shown to most effectively inhibit aromatase activity in a live cell assay. Kinetic analysis of UB showed mixed inhibition, suggesting more than one inhibitory mechanism. Proliferation assays also determined that UB significantly inhibited testosterone-induced MCF-7aro cell proliferation. The remaining test compounds also exhibited antiproliferative activity, but to a lesser degree than UB. These studies suggest that pomegranate ET–derived compounds have potential for the prevention of estrogen-responsive breast cancers.”

Researchers say the ellagitannins in pomegranates work by inhibiting aromatase, which is a key enzyme used by the body to make estrogen and plays a key role in breast cancer growth.

“We were surprised by our findings,” Chen says. “We previously found other fruits, such as grapes, to be capable of the inhibition of aromatase. But phytochemicals in pomegranates and in grapes are different.”

Researchers say pomegranates have recently been hailed for their potential anti-cancer and heart healthy benefits thanks to their high antioxidant content. But they say this is the first study to look at their effects on aromatase and breast cancer growth.

In the study, published in Cancer Prevention Research, researchers examined the impact of 10 ellagitannin-derived compounds from pomegranates on aromatase activity and breast cancer cell growth in laboratory tests.

The results showed that of those 10 compounds, urolithin B most significantly inhibited breast cancer cell growth.

Experts say further studies will be needed to determine whether eating or drinking pomegranate-derived products will have the same effect in humans, but these results are promising.

“More research on the individual components and the combination of chemicals is needed to understand the potential risks and benefits of using pomegranate juice or isolated compounds for a health benefit or for cancer prevention,” Powel Brown, MD, PhD, chairman of the clinical cancer prevention department at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center. Brown was not associated with the study.

Until then, researchers say people may consider eating more pomegranates to protect against cancer in the breast and perhaps other tissues and organs.

Introduction

Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of the 20th century and spreading further with continuance and increasing incidence in 21st century. In the United States, as the leading cause of death, it accounts for 25% of all the deaths in humans presently. It is considered as an adversary of modernization and advanced pattern of socio-cultural life dominated by Western medicine. Multidisciplinary scientific investigations are making best efforts to combat this disease, but the sure-shot, perfect cure is yet to be brought into world medicine. Recently, a greater emphasis has been given towards the researches on complementary and alternative medicine that deals with cancer management. Several studies have been conducted on herbs under a multitude of ethno botanical grounds. For example, Hartwell [1–9] has collected data on about 3000 plants, those of which possess anticancer properties and subsequently been used as potent anticancer drugs [10]. ‘‘Ayurveda’’ as it means in Sanskrit (the ancient language of India) – ‘ayus’ (life) and ‘ved’ (knowledge) is often translated as science of life and is a 5000 years old system of Indian medicine. It emphasizes prevention of disease, rejuvenation of body systems and extension of lifespan. It has been successful from very early times in using these natural drugs and preventing or suppressing various tumours using various lines of treatment.
This article reviews the available literature regarding researches on anti-cancerous ayurvedic herbs and also includes a summary of treatment strategies for various cancers. It is written with an intention to raise awareness and encourage implementation of ayurvedic therapies for fighting cancer and suggesting an integrated approach in tumour management and treatment.

Ayurvedic Concept Of Cancer

Charaka and Sushruta samhitas, two well-known Ayurvedic classics, describe cancer as inflammatory or non-inflammatory swelling and mention them as either Granthi (minor neoplasm) or Arbuda (major neoplasm). Ayurvedic literature defines three body-control systems, viz., the nervous system (Vata or air), the venous system (Pitta or fire), and the arterial system (Kapha or water) which mutually coordinate to perform the normal function of the body. In benign neoplasm (Vataja, Pittaja or Kaphaja ) one or two of the three bodily systems are out of control and is not too harmful because the body is still trying to coordinate among these systems. Malignant tumours (Tridosaja) are very harmful because all the three major bodily systems lose mutual coordination and thus cannot prevent tissue damage, resulting in a deadly morbid condition .

Fundamental Classification

Ayurvedic classification of neoplasm depends on various clinical symptoms in relation to Tridoshas. Group I: Diseases that can be named as clear malignancy, which includes arbuda and granthi, e.g. mamsarbuda (melanoma) and raktarbuda (leukaemia), mukharbuda (oral cancer), etc. Group II: Diseases that can be considered as cancer, such as incurable ulcers with e.g. tridosaj gulmas (abdominal tumours like carcinomas of the stomach and liver or lymphomas). Group III: Diseases with the possibility of malignancy, e.g. Visarpa (erysipelas), asadhya kamala (incurable jaundice) and nadi vrana (sinusitis).

Etiology

According to Sushruta, the fundamental cause of major neoplasm is the pathogens that affect all parts of the body. He called the sixth layer of the skin as ‘Rohini,’ (epithelium) and pathogenic injuries to this layer in muscular tissues and blood vessels caused by lifestyle errors, unhealthy foods,  poor hygiene and bad habits results in the derangement of doshas, which leads to the manifestation of tumours . Excess of water or fat in the corpus of the tumour and the stability and rigid confinement of the doshas in a particular place were described as reasons for the non-infectious and non-suppurative nature of these abnormal growths. Cancer in each person differs according to the person’s exposure to pathogens and genetic constitutions which make each of them to react differently to the same diet. The factors responsible for the vitiation of doshas are discussed here .

1. Vata aggravating factors: excessive intake of bitter, pungent, astringent, dry foods and stressful conditions.
2. Pitta aggravating factors: excessive intake of sour, salty, fried foods and excessive anger.
3. Kapha aggravating factors: excessive intake of sweet, oily food and sedentary nature.
4. Rakta aggravating factors: excessive intake of acid or alkali containing foods. Fried and roasted foods, alcoholic beverages, sour fruits are some examples. Excessive anger or severe emotional upset, sunbathing or working under scorching sun or near fire and hot conditions, etc. are some other causes.
5. Mamsa aggravating factors: excessive use of exudative foods like meat, fish, yoghurt, milk and cream. Behaviours leading to exudation like sleeping during the day and overeating are some of the causes for pathogens invading the fatty tissues.
6. Medo aggravating factors: excessive intake of oily foods, sweets, alcohol and lazy attitude.

Pathogenesis Of Tumours

According to Ayurvedic principles, the disease cannot be named on its own because it differs between persons in terms of illness, clinical presentation and also the treatment required. Thus, pathogenesis in Ayurveda is explained on the basis of Tridoshas. Agni or Pitta, which is present in each and every cell, is responsible for digestion and metabolism in human body. The decrease in agni is inversely proportional to the related tissue and therefore in arbuda, the decreased state of dhatwagni (deranged metabolism) will result in excessive tissue growth. Vata can be correlated with the anabolic phase of growth whereas kapha to the catabolic phase. Cancer originates due to a metabolic crisis, i.e. aggravation of vata forces and suppression of kapha forces, both interacting with one another resulting in proliferation. However, the abnormal cancerous growth at a specific organ (Ekadesavriddhi) is managed by compensation from other parts of the body (Anyasthaniyakshaya), e.g. body weight loss (cachexia). Sushruta has proposed six stages in the pathogenesis of all diseases but his concept suits more to the pathology of the tumour than pathogenesis itself.

1. Sanchaya: early stages of localized neoplastic changes.
2. Prakopa: transformation of primary growths into metastatic tumours.
3. Prasara: metastasis.
4. Sthana samsraya: complete metastasis and secondary growth.
5. Vyakti: clinical signs and symptoms are expressed.
6. Bheda: the stage where differentiation of growth occurs on the basis of histopathology.

Cancer Therapy—A Practical Dilemma

Any practical solution in combating this dreadful disease is of paramount importance. An alternative solution to western medicine embodied with severe side effects is the use of medicinal plant preparations to arrest the insidious nature of the disease. Many herbs have been evaluated in clinical studies and are currently being investigated phytochemically to understand their tumouricidal actions against various cancers. Thus, cancer patients who already got crippled with this disease, further burdened by drug-induced toxic side effects have now turned to seek help from the complementary and alternative medicine hoping for a better cure. Ayurvedic therapy was found to be able to cure these chronic diseases better, which were previously not amenable to treatment by western medical practices. This traditional Indian medicine with its evolution through centuries has always fascinated practitioners and researchers for its applications in cancer treatment on a scientifically proven research background.

Principles Of Ayurvedic Treatment

Abuse of nature’s law upsets the human system and ends up in disease like cancer. It is again the nature, the foremost physician who brings the cure. The Ayurvedic system of medicine was well founded on the basic principles of nature and its elements after a careful and thorough study of human physiology. This is the first system to emphasize health as the perfect state of physical, psychological, social and spiritual component of a human being. The therapeutic approach of Ayurveda has been divided into four categories as Prakritisthapani chikitsa (health maintenance), Roganashani chikitsa (disease cure), Rasayana chikitsa (restoration of normal function) and Naishthiki chikitsa (spiritual approach) [18]. Finding the cause of an illness is the basic goal of ayurvedic therapy. It classifies disease development into six stages that include aggravation, accumulation, overflow, relocation, build-up in a new location, and manifestation into a recognizable disease. Ayurvedic physicians can diagnose an illness at even initial stages of body imbalance and their therapeutic approach maintains a balance by supplying deficient substances as well as reducing the excessive ones. Surgery is considered only for advanced cases.

Ayurvedic Texts About Cancer Treatment

During the 7th century BC, Atreya and Dhanwantari used herbal medicines for treating the early stages of cancer and surgery in advanced cases. In the 8th century AD, Vagbhata, a Buddhist physician composed two texts: Astanga Hrdaya  and Astanga sangraha where new methods for cancer treatment were introduced. Other Ayurvedic texts of internal medicine, viz., Chakradatta composed by Chakrapani (10th century AD), the Sarangadhara Samhita by Sarangadhara (14th century AD), the Bhavaprakasha Samhita by Bhavamisra (15th century AD), the Satmya Darpan Samhita by Viswanath (16th century AD), the Vaisajya Ratnabali by Binoda Lala Sen Gupta (18th Century AD), the Rasatarangini by Sadananda Sharma (19th century AD), etc. explain numerous remedies to treat internal and external neoplasms.

Treatment Modalities

Sodhana chikitsa (purification process), which eliminates vitiated doshas, have been primarily used for medical management of cancer. When both internal and external medications were given then it is called as panchakarma chikitsa. The other type of curative therapy is called somana chikitsa, which pacifies dosha and gradually relieves the disease. However, this treatment is prescribed only to weaker patients for whom sodana chikitsa is contraindicated. In Rasayana prayoga (immunotherapy), certain poisonous plants, mercury like metals and animal products were rendered non-toxic and harmless by the use of alchemy and are used as rejuvenating drugs. Other methods of treatment include, dhatwagni chikitsa (correction of metabolic defects), vyadhipratyanika chikitsa (specific anti-cancerous drugs) and lakshanika chikitsa (symptomatic treatment) [24]. When medical treatment practices fail, then the case was left to surgeons. Surgical cancer management in Ayurveda include the principles of fomentation by means of external application, cleansing by internal medication, treatment to liquefy the contents of the swelling, opening the tumour surgically for evacuation of its contents, cauterisation to avoid recurrence and post-operative care for healing the wound [15]. Cauterisation with alkalis and acids and other surgical procedures were performed with herbal and mineral medicines. Arbuda is excised completely from its deep root seat and cauterisation done to destroy any of the remaining cell particles.

Classical Drugs Claimed In Ayurvedic Texts

Traditional line of treatment: Traditional methods employed in treatment of various cancers were given in Table 1. In addition to these traditional methods, various herbal combinations mentioned in Ayurvedic texts are listed in Table 2. The main objective of these tables is to support the physicians and researchers to utilize these traditional methods as well as herbal drugs for an effective cancer treatment.

Scientific Principles Of Ayurvedic Anticancer Drugs

Herbal decoctions consisting of multiple herbs each possessing tremendous potential for a cancer cure are commonly used in Ayurveda. These formulations are reported to work on multiple biochemical pathways and are capable of influencing several organ systems simultaneously. The benefit of an herbal decoction is that it can nourish the body as a whole by supporting various organ systems. Many of the herbs mentioned below have scientifically-proven anti-cancerous properties and are used for the treatment of various cancers.

Andrographis paniculata

The extract and isolated diterpenes (andrographiside and neoandrographolide) from this plant are proved to be beneficial against tumourigenesis by their anti-lipoperoxidative action and by enhanced carcinogen detoxification action.

Annona atemoya/muricata

Bullatacin, an acetogenin isolated from the fruit of Annona atemoya, induces apoptosis, preceded by chromatin margination and tumour cells condensation [30].  Several other annonaceous acetogenins, e.g. muricins A–G, muricatetrocin A and B, longifolicin, corossolin, and corossolone are also showed to be significantly selective in bringing in vitro cytotoxicities to tumour cells.

Phyllanthus niruri/amarus

An aqueous extract of P. amarus increases the life span of the tumour bearing rats and normalizes glutamyl transpeptidase activity. It plays a major role in disruption of HBsAg mRNA transcription and post-transcription which could be beneficial against viral carcinogenesis.

Piper longum

Piperine, an active alkaloid extracted from this plant has been used as an ingredient of ayurvedic anticancer formulations because of its anti-oxidative potency in both in vitro and in vivo conditions.

Podophyllum hexandrum Linn. (Podophyllin)

It is a powerful anticancer drug against various cancers for e.g. sarcomas, adenocarcinoma and melanoma. Podophyllin and its active principle, podophyllotoxin are known for their cytotoxic effect by virtue of their properties of mitotic inhibition, nuclear fragmentation, impaired spindle formation and they are also found to be karyoplastic. The mechanism of action has been suggested as necrosis and is a direct consequence of its cytotoxic effect on tumour tissues. These derivatives have been analysed in cancer chemotherapeutic  studies and the methods of preparation of these compounds are patented. In recent days, chemically modified podophyllotoxins are widely used in cancer therapeutics. VP-16 (etoposide), a podophyllotoxin derivative has been tested against in vitro and in vivo cancer cells and been used against hepatic cancers for more than a decade. It has proved its efficacy in combination with epirubicin in phase II studies. By this combination therapy at least 3% of the patients had complete cure and 36% had partial response. P-glycoprotein, a drug efflux pump, seems to be less effective in reducing VP-16 concentration in cancer cell lines and hence this drug proves to be more efficient in these cells. It is also safe even above therapeutic dosage without much toxic effects.

Tinospora cordifolia

The active principles from T. cordifolia enhance host immune system by increasing immunoglobulin and blood leukocyte levels and by the stimulation of stem cell proliferation. It has the ability to reduce solid tumour volume by 58.8%, which is comparable to cyclophosphamide, a known chemotherapeutic agent. These immuno stimulating properties can be used in the prevention of tumour mediated immuno suppression and hence could be a drug choice for various cancers.
Semecarpus anacardium

In Ayurveda classics, numerous references are available on the anticancer properties of Semecarpus anacardium nuts. An extensive review describes the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of S. anacardium. The chloroform extract of S. anacardium nut possess antitumour action with increased life span against leukaemia, melanoma and glioma. The milk extract of S. anacardium produces regression of hepatocarcinoma by stimulating host immune system and normalizing tumour markers including alpha-fetoprotein levels. This preparation stabilizes the lysozomes, and normalizes glycoprotein and mineral content in the body during cancer progression. It also corrects hypoglycaemia and controls abnormal lipid peroxidation by the maintenance of antioxidant defense status. In the microsomes, it acts as a bifunctional inducer of both phase I and II biotransformation enzymes and prevents tumour initiation by preventing carcinogen activation. Histologically, on treatment with the S. anacardium extract to hepatocarcinoma animals,
the liver sections showed almost a normal architecture. The nodules become completely regressed and further cell necrosis was prevented. Anacartin forte, another preparation from S. anacardium has been used for several decades as an anticancer drug since it is giving health improvement with alleviation or disappearance of troublesome symptoms. It provides clinical benefit with an extension of survival time in various cancers including oesophageal, chronic myeloid leukaemia, urinary bladder and liver cancer. Another Ayurvedic drug containing S. anacardium, Amura rohitaka, Glycyrrhiza glabra and copper powder were reported to inhibit breast tumour development in mice by significantly extending the survival period. This drug was also found to be efficient in clinical trials.
Ayurvedic herbs, which are widely used and scientifically proven of their anticancer properties, are presented in Table 3. Smit et al. have also elaborately listed ayurvedic herbal drugs with anticancer activity. Some of these herbs are shown to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and/or reduce the toxicity of anticancer drugs used in chemotherapy. Also few of them possess radiosensitising effect too (see Table 4). Pharmacological details of ayurvedic herbs like therapeutic dosage, side effects, and comments about safety and herb-drug interactions were given in Table5.
Benefits Of Ayurveda In Cancer Cachexia

Cancer cachexia is a common clinical problem that substantially impacts upon the quality of life and survival of cancer patients. The pathophysiology of this syndrome implicates tumour induced metabolic changes and immune responses. Clinical manifestations include anorexia, chronic nausea and change in body image. Among several potential benefits of ayurvedic medicine, relief from cancer cachexia is especially valuable. Ayurvedic herbs used in cancer therapy results not only in total healing, but also reduces the side effects and cancer associated complications. It also avoids the need for supplemental therapy to manage cancer cachexia. Each herbal product contains multiple active principles that may operate synergistically, producing therapeutic benefits and lowering the risks on adverse effects. The anorexia or weight loss could be effectively managed by Withania somnifera, Sida cordifolia, Asparagus racemosa, Vitis vinifera, Plumbago zeylenica, Tinospora cordifolia, Zingiber officinale, Coptidis rhizoma, etc. These herbs have been shown to improve appetite, food intake, malnutrition, fatigue and sensation of well-being which could elicit bodyweight gain. These herbs might stimulate the flow of digestive juices, thereby improving digestion and increasing the appetite. Aegle marmelos, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Punica granatum, Cyperus rotundus, Emblica officinalis, and Plumbago zeylanica can be used as anti-diarrhoeals when diarrhoea becomes one of the complications of cancer cachexia. Terminalia chebula could be useful against chronic constipation and digestive disorders which are common in cancer patients resulting in loss of appetite. Eclipta prostrata, Emblica officinalis, Withania somnifera, Piper longum can be directed to correct nausea and vomiting. Among the above-mentioned herbs, Withania somnifera and Tinospora cordifolia are also proven to be powerful immunostimulants, which could increase body resistance power during cancer associated immunosuppression. Ayurvedic anticancer therapy includes recommendations for lifestyle and use of specific foods and herbs which are very helpful not only in preventing the progression of the disease but also makes the patients feel better and comfortable overcoming the symptoms. Allium sativum (garlic) could be helpful to manage pain and ache. Bacopa monniera strengthens mental faculties and helps to manage insomnia or sleeplessness due to stress [62]. An herbal combination of Withania sominifera, Asparagus racemosa, Hydrocotyle asiatica, Nardostachys jatamamsi, Elettaria cardamomum, Tribulus terrestris, Zingiber officinalis and Eclipta alba could also be useful in the treatment of anxiety, tension and insomnia. Ocimum sanctum is beneficial against stress and depression during cancer. Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Terminalia chebula, Ocimum sanctum and Adhatoda vasica are used to control cough and shortness of breathe especially for lung cancer patients. Thus, ayurvedic therapeutic regimen rejuvenates thebody tissues, tones up the systems and act as a tonic to the body against cancer cachexia. This kind of orientation toward total healing and health promotion makes ayurvedic treatment approach to cancer therapy promising.

Cancer Therapy In Ayurveda—Future Prospects

Because large population use ayurvedic medicine worldwide, there is an urgent need for additional, carefully conducted, high-quality intensive research to evaluate its efficacy and to develop this discipline to meet ever-new challenges of modern medicine in the field of oncology. The most rigid evaluation should take place with gold standards for clinical research—the randomized controlled clinical trial (RCT). Priority for research funding should be given to clinical investigations in Ayurveda involving well-designed studies with encouraging results especially for diseases like cancer to which conventional medicine has been shown to be less effective. Attention should be given not only to the evaluation of safety and examination of effectiveness in treatment strategy, but also to the consideration of community practice settings, patient expectations, compliance and cost effectiveness. Standardization and quality production of herbal products may allow us to develop low cost therapies with reduced risk over pharmaceuticals. In any case, studies on anticancer ayurvedic drugs will be popular from the economy point of view because cancer is becoming the major cause of death.

The Sanskrit word yoga has many meanings, and is derived from the Sanskrit root “yuj,” meaning “to control,” “to yoke” or “to unite”. Translations include “joining,” “uniting,” “union,” “conjunction,” and “means”. Outside India, the term yoga is typically associated with Hatha Yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise. Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy is called a yogi or yogini.

History

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, while ascetic practices (tapas) are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas(ब्राह्मणं)(900 to 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas. Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 B.C.E.) sites in Pakistan depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing “a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga”, according to archaeologist Gregory Possehl. Some type of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though there is no conclusive evidence. Techniques for experiencing higher states of consciousness in meditation were developed by the shramanic traditions and in the Upanishadic tradition.

While there is no clear evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.[21] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.[22] Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.

The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest texts describing meditation techniques. They describe meditative practices and states which had existed before the Buddha as well as those which were first developed within Buddhism. In Hindu literature, the term “yoga” first occurs in the Katha Upanishad, where it refers to control of the senses and the cessation of mental activity leading to a supreme state. Important textual sources for the evolving concept of Yoga are the middle Upanishads, (ca. 400 BCE), the Mahabharata including the Bhagavad Gita (ca. 200 BCE), and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (150 BCE).

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school. The Yoga school as expounded by the sage Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya’s twenty-five elements of reality. The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that “the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord….”.

Samkhya and Yoga are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or ‘isolation-integration’ (kaivalya)

Patanjali is widely regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.[34] Patanjali’s yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind.[35] Patanjali defines the word “yoga” in his second sutra,[36] which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:

“योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध:( yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ ) – Yoga Sutras 1.2″

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as “Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)”. The use of the word nirodhaḥ in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist technical terminology and concepts play in the Yoga Sutra; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas and wove them into his system. Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as “Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)”.

Patanjali’s writing also became the basis for a system referred to as “Ashtanga Yoga” (“Eight-Limbed Yoga”). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today.

The Eight Limbs are:

1. Yama (The five “abstentions”): non-violence, non-lying, non-covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
2. Niyama (The five “observances”): purity, contentment, austerity, study, and surrender to god.
3. Asana: Literally means “seat”, and in Patanjali’s Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama (“Suspending Breath”): Prāna, breath, “āyāma”, to restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.
5. Pratyahara (“Abstraction”): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana (“Concentration”): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana (“Meditation”): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samādhi (“Liberation”): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world to be illusion. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many individual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by all persons.

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita (‘Song of the Lord’), uses the term yoga extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation, it introduces three prominent types of yoga:

• Karma yoga: The yoga of action,
• Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion,
• Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.

Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge). Other commentators ascribe a different ‘yoga’ to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.

Hatha Yoga

Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century India. Hatha Yoga differs substantially from the Raja Yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital energy (tha). Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali’s Raja yoga, it marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body ‘postures’ now in popular usage. Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that many people associate with the word “Yoga” today.

Yoga practices in other traditions

Buddhism

Early Buddhism incorporated meditative absorption states. The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha. One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption should be combined with the practice of mindfulness. The difference between the Buddha’s teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking.  Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating.  Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness.. The Buddha also departed from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.  Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the realization at death of a nondual meditative state anticipated in life.  In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept (“becoming cool”, “going out”) were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in life.

Yogacara Buddhism

Yogacara (Sanskrit: “yoga practice”), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th centuries. Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva. The Yogacara sect teaches yoga in order to reach enlightenment.

Ch’an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism

Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit “dhyaana” via the Chinese “ch’an”) is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.[50] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances. This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices. Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.

Indo-Tibetan Buddhism

Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound. The last six are described as “yoga yanas”: Kriya yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, Mahā yoga, Anu yoga and the ultimate practice, Ati yoga. The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called Charya), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. Trul khor), a discipline which includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre the practitioner. The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama’s summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan Yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī (Tib. tummo), the generation of heat in one’s own body, as being “the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan Yoga”. Chang also claims that Tibetan Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Jainism

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd Century CE Jain text, Yoga, is the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body. Umasvati calls yoga as the cause of asrava or karmic influx as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation. n his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.  Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism as essentially a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.  Dr. Heinrich Zimmer contended that the yoga system had pre-Aryan origins which did not accept the authority of the Vedas and hence was reckoned as one of the heterodox doctrines similar to Jainism.  Jain iconography depicts Jain Tirthankaras meditation in Padmasana or Kayotsarga yogic poses. Mahavira was said to have achieved Kevala Jnana “enlightenment” siting in mulabandhasana position which has the first literary mention in the Acaranga Sutra and later in Kalpasutra.

The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a strong influence of Jainism.  This mutual influence between the Yoga philosophy and Jainism is admitted by the author Vivian Worthington who writes: “Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainsim, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life”. The Indus valley seals and iconography also provide a reasonable evidence of the existence of a proto-yogic tradition akin to Jainism.  More specifically, scholars and archaeologists have remarked on close similarities in the yogic and meditative postures depicted in the seals with those of various Tirthankaras: the “kayotsarga” posture of Rsabha and the mulabandhasana of Mahavira along with seals depicting meditative figure flaked by upright serpents bearing similarities to iconography of Parsva. All these are indicative of not only links between Indus Valley Civilisation and Jainism, but also show the contribution of Jainism to various yogic practices.

References in Jain canons and literature

Earliest of Jain canonical literature like Acarangasutra and texts like Niyamasara, Tattvarthasutra etc had many references on yoga as a way of life for laymen and asctics. The later texts that further elaborated on the Jain concept of yoga are as follows:

• Pujyapada (5th Century CE)
  • Ishtopadesh
• Acarya Haribhadra Suri(8th Century CE)
  • Yogabindu
  • Yogadristisamuccaya
  • Yogasataka
  • Yogavimisika
• Acarya Joindu (8th Century CE)
  • Yogasara
• Acarya Hemacandra (11th Century CE)
  • Yogasastra
• Acarya Amitagati (11th Century CE)
  • Yogasaraprabhrta

Islam

The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama). The ancient Indian yogic text, Amritakunda, (“Pool of Nectar)” was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century.

Malaysia’s top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslims practicing yoga, saying it had elements of “Hindu spiritual teachings” and could lead to blasphemy and is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as “insulting”. Sisters in Islam, a women’s rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said they would continue with their yoga classes. The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of religious mantras, and states that teachings such as uniting of a human with God is not consistent with Islamic philosophy.[83] In a similar vein, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains “Hindu elements”. These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.

In May of 2009, Turkey’s head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted Yoga as a commercial venture promoting extremism-comments made in the context of Yoga practice possibly competing with and eroding participation in Islam.

Christianity

In 1989, the Vatican declared that Eastern meditation practices such as Zen and yoga can “degenerate into a cult of the body.” Despite the Vatican statement, many Roman Catholics bring elements of Yoga, Buddhism, and Hinduism into their spiritual practices.

Tantra

Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice an individual perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.[88] This particular path to salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes.

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate’s previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the “heart,” for meditation and worship.

Goal of yoga

The goal of yoga may range from improving health to achieving Moksha. Within Jainism and the monist schools of Advaita Vedanta and Shaivism the goal of yoga takes the form of Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realisation of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously described as entering the world of Brahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or Atman that pervades all things. For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or service to Svayam bhagavan itself may be the ultimate goal of the yoga process, where the goal is to enjoy an eternal relationship with Vishnu. Yoga also helps your body maintain a stable relationship with itself while going into a calm, neutral state of peace.

Ayurveda is considered to be a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) within the western world, where several of its methods, such as the use of herbs, massage, and Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine, are applied on their own as a form of CAM treatment.

Ayurveda is grounded in a metaphysics of the ‘five [great] Elements’ ([महा] पञ्चभूत; earth, water, fire, air and ether)—all of which compose the Universe, including the human body. Chyle (called Rasa dhatu), blood (called Rakta dhatu), flesh (called Mamsa dhatu), fat (called Medha dhatu), bone (called Asthi dhatu), marrow (called Majja dhatu), and semen (called Shukra dhatu) or female reproductive tissue (called Artava dhatu) are held to be the seven primary constituent elements (सप्तधातु) of the body. Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: vata (wind/spirit/air), pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm), each representing divine forces. According to Ayurveda, these three regulatory principles—Doshas (त्रिदोश)—are important. Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of Doshas. In Ayurveda, the human body perceives attributes of experiences as 20 Guna (गुण, meaning qualities). Surgery and surgical instruments are employed. It is believed that building a healthy metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality. Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage. Thus, body, mind, and spirit/consciousness need to be addressed both individually and in unison for health to ensue.

The practice of Panchakarma (पंचकर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body. Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtanga (अष्टांग), are given below:

1. Surgery (Shalya-chikitsa)
2. Treatment of diseases above the clavicle (Salakyam)
3. Internal medicine (Kaaya-chikitsa)
4. Demonic possession (Bhuta vidya): Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of these interferences. Bhuta vidya has been called psychiatry.
5. Paediatrics (Kaumarabhrtyam)
6. Toxicology (Agadatantram)
7. Prevention and building immunity (rasayanam)
8. Aphrodisiacs (Vajikaranam)

History

AyurVeda is referenced in the literature from the Vedic period between 4000-2000 B.C.E. The four Vedas; Brahmanas, Upanishads, Mahabharata and the Puranas refer to concepts of AyurVeda . Rig Veda contains Indira, Agni and Soma relating to Vata, Pita and Kapha, the three doshas (biological humors) of AyurVeda. Yajur Veda introduces the AyurVedic ideas of the organs and dhatus (tissues). Sama Veda contains chants related to health of the body, mind and spirit while Atharva Veda contains reference to herbs, disease treatments and systematic knowledge of Ayurveda. Since Atharva Veda contains a lot of references to AyurVeda, sometimes AyurVeda is considered to be an Upaveda or branch of AyurVeda. The Brahmanas mention the five pranas (life-force) and the seven dhatus in detail. The Upanishads teach the mental and spiritual aspect of AyurVeda. The Mahabharata discusses doshas and their effects on health and diseases. The Puranas describe the patron deity of AyurVeda, Lord Dhanvantari, as ‘King of Kashi.’

At the end of the Vedic Period, between 2000-300 B.C., AyurVedic knowledge was preserved, reformulated and systemically arranged and compiled into Samhitas . The three authentic Samhitas that we have today are Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita and Ashtanga Hridaya. These three Samhitas are collectively called Brihattrayi. Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were written during this period while Ashtanga Hridaya was written around 600 AD.

Current Status

Within India

In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the Parliament of India, which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research. In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.[35] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India.[36] The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.

Many clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas. Mukherjee & Wahile cite World Health Organization statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world’s population depends for primary health care. In Sri Lanka the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained modern medicine professionals. The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several pharmaceutical companies. Old manufacturing companies such as Vaipa Pharmaceutical Works,Arya Vaidya Sala, Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, IMIS Pharmaceuticals, Dabur, Baidyanath have maintained the classical range, while also patenting certain own formulations, such as Gyncocalm, Jeevani, Eosinophal, Dabur Pancharishta. Similarly, MNCs like Hindustan Unilever Limited, in collaboration with Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, has been promoting its chain of Ayurvedic Massage Therapy Centres in the Brand name of [Ayush Therapy Centre],with two of the major centers located at Kalyan and Vashi.

Outside India

Ayurveda gained recognition in the Western world as medical scholars, notably , Frank John Ninivaggi MD of Yale University School of Medicine, researched and outlined its various postulates in one major textbook form suitable to Western academic science. In the United States of America, the NIH NCCAM expends some of its $123 million budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices. Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals. The postulates and history of Ayurveda have also been outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the United Kingdom.

Journal

A variety of peer reviewed journals focus on the topic of ayurvedic medicine, including the Theoretical and Experimental Journal of Ayurveda and Siddha (TEJAS; published between 1981 and 2008 as Ancient Science of Life), the Journal of Research & Education in Indian Medicine (JREIM), AYU (published quarterly) and The International Journal for Ayurveda Research (published quarterly).

Patents

In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing. The patent was contested by India’s industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R), on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy. The Government of India had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997.

“In India the government became involved in traditional drug production when the Central Drug Research Institute patented two new drugs from ancient Ayurvedic formulas. One, a mixture of black pepper, long pepper, and ginger, allows for the dosage of the antibiotic rifampicin to be halved in the treatment of tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections. The other is a memory tonic produced from the traditional plant called brahmi. Overseas patenting of turmeric and products of the neem tree caused controversy in India and other nations. In August the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office canceled a U.S. patent on the wound-healing properties of turmeric when the Indian government proved that records had existed for this use for centuries.”